Bio-fuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from plant matter and residues, such as agricultural crops, municipal wastes and agricultural and forestry by-products. Liquid bio-fuels can be used as an alternative fuel for transport, as can other alternatives such as liquid natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and hydrogen. Bio-fuels could significantly reduce the emissions from the road-transport sector if they were widely adopted. They have been shown to reduce carbon emissions, and may help to increase energy security.
There are many different types of bio-fuels, which are produced from various crops and via different processes. Bio-fuels can be classified broadly as bio-diesel and bio-ethanol, and then subdivided into conventional or advanced fuels . This paper summarizes policy and regulatory drivers for bio-ethanol fuel in the major producing countries, describes usage trends and projections, development of biomass feedstocks, and improved conversion technologies.
Bio-fuels are attracting growing interest around the world, with some governments announcing commitments to bio-fuel programs as a way to both reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on petroleum-based fuels. The United States, Brazil, and several EU member states have the largest programs promoting bio-fuels in the world. The recent commitment by the United States government to increase bio-energy threefold in ten years has added impetus to the search for viable bio-fuels. In South America, Brazil continued policies that mandate at least 22% bio-ethanol on motor fuels and encourage the use of vehicles that use hydrous bio-ethanol [(96 bio-ethanol + 4 water)/100] to replace gasoline. Future conditions for an international bio-fuel market in Europe will largely be decided by the EU policies on Renewable energy and their interplay with national energy policies. So far, the European Commission has indicated that biomass will play an important role in the future.
In the United States, the desire to promote the production and use of bio-fuels, particularly bio-ethanol produced from maize, started in the early 1980s, largely to revitalize the farming sector at a time of oversupply of agricultural produce. Bio-ethanol can be used in fuel mixtures such as E85 (a blended fuel of 85% bio-ethanol and 15% gasoline) in vehicles specially designed for its use, although E85 represents only approximately 1% of US bio-ethanol consumption [20]. To promote the development of E85 blend fuel and other alternative transportation fuels, the US Congress has enacted various legislative requirements and incentives. At the national level, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) is one of the most significant steps [21]. The legislation set a target of 28.4 billion liters consumption of bio-ethanol by 2012 (Renewable Fuels Standard [RFS]), it represents around 5% (in volume) of gasoline consumption projected for the year 2012 Jank MJ, Kutas G, Amaral LF, Nassar AM. EU and US policies on biofuels: potential impacts on developing countries. GMF study, The German Marshall Fund, Washington, DC; May 2007.. The act also gave additional incentives for cellulosic bio-ethanol, extended the bio-diesel fuel excise tax credit through 2008, and authorized a US$0.03 per liter income tax credit to small bio-diesel producers [23]. Gasoline prices surged over US$0.79 per liter in the spring of 2007, stayed near that level during the summer driving season, and after a brief retreat returned there at the beginning of 2008. However, consumption of gasoline continued above nine million barrels per day, setting a record high summer peak of over 9.7 million barrels per day during 2007 [24]. To help improve vehicle fuel economy and reduce dependence on foreign oil sources, the US Congress passed, and the President signed the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) on December 18, 2007. Congress has agreed by approving new fuel and vehicle fuel economy standards (Corporate Average Fuel Economy [CAFE] standards) as part of the EISA. These standards require a fleet–wide average of 35 miles per gallon for cars and light trucks by 2020. The legislation also requires 34 billion liters of bio-fuels (mainly bio-ethanol) in 2008, increasing steadily to 57.5 billion liters in 2012 and to 136 billion liters in 2022. Also for the first time, the 2007 Energy Act includes the concept of a low carbon fuel standard (similar to California) requiring renewable fuels to have at least a 20% reduction in carbon intensity over the fuels’ life-cycle.
Bio-ethanol trends and projections:Global production of bio-ethanol increased from 17.25 billion liters in 2000 to over 46 billion liters in 2007 . Fig shows global bio-ethanol production between 2000 and 2007. Bio-ethanol production in 2007 represented about 4% of the 1300 billion liters of gasoline consumed globally . The United States, Brazil, and several EU member states have the largest programs promoting bio-fuels in the world. National bio-fuel policies tend to vary according to available feedstock for fuel production and national agriculture policies. With all of the new government programs in America, Asia, and Europe in place, total global fuel bio-ethanol demand could grow to exceed 125 billion liters by 2020.
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